Motivation and Behavior Essay Example for Free

motivating and Behavior Essay motivation refers to the impact that drives an organism to behave the way it does. Simply put motivation causes an organism to eat, sleep, and drink and individuals to embark in the activities they find satisfying. indigence can separate volume into two categories optimist and pessimist. Optimists are those looking for the good in situations and pessimists finding the bad. Motivational sources can be exposit as extrinsic and intrinsic. Extrinsic is the motivation that comes from outdoors of the individual. Intrinsic is the motivation of an individual that comes from within. Motivation affects an organisms behavior. Dr. Whitbourne describes six theories in here phrase from psychology today instinct, drive reduction, arousal, incentive, cognitive and self-determination.MotivationAs defined by psychology.about.com, motivation is defined as the process that initiates, guides and maintains goal-oriented behaviors. Motivation is the mental proces s that tells humans what to do. A motivation causes humans and other species to drink, eat, play, sleep and reproduce. Without motivation there would be no reason for accomplishing anything. Within the motivation process there are different factors with each individual. Motivation can come in the form of positive motivation and negative motivation.These motivating factors eventually learn to an emotional state within the individual. Generally motivation creates to type of individuals that society recognizes and relates with optimist and pessimist. Optimistic is disposed to take a favorable view of events or conditions and to carry the most favorable outcome, (Optimistic,2012). These are the individuals who tend to have a positive outlook on life. In most cases these individuals are look for the good in every situation. From dictionary.com, pessimistic is pertaining to or characterized as the tendency to expect the worst and see the worst in all things. Pessimists are those individ uals who see the worst in everything. Sources of Motivation Extrinsic/IntrinsicExtrinsic is defined by dictionary.com as, non essential or inherent being outside a thing outwards or external operating or coming from without, (Extrinsic, 2012). Extrinsic motivation is simply that, things that motivate from the external. When looking at individuals who have extrinsic motivation, they tend to not enjoy certain activities, (Huitt, 2011). They tend to be a reward based group and need affirmation from an outside source. Throughout society many people can be found to fit this category of motivation. As shown a person who only writes poems to be submitted to poetry contests as well as a person who does not like sales but accepts a sales position for the amount of money he/she will make, (Psychology, n.d.).Intrinsic is defined by dictionary.com as, belonging to a thing by its very nature of or relating to the essential nature of a thing inherent, (Intrinsic, 2012). If extrinsic is from the external, the intrinsic is from within the individual. These individuals to things because it amuse them and they find the activity enjoyable, (Psychology, n.d.). These people are not concerned as much with what the outside world or society thinks. They are motivated from within. An representative shows, playing chess because the individual enjoys effortful thinking, and a person reading a non-fiction book because they are curious about the topic, (Psychology, n.d.).Motivation and BehaviorFrom an article written by Susan Drauss Whitbourne, Ph.D. motivation as the cause of behavior is examined. In her article Dr. Whitbourne discuss insights to explain the complexity of behavior. The instinct theory as Dr. Whitbourne refers to it as the biological set instincts that organisms have, (Motivation the whys of behavior, 2011). These factors are what tell organisms to do in order to survive, such as the lion hunting the antelope or a smoke of geese migrating south for the winter. The sec ond she describes is the drive reduction theory, (Motivation the whys of behavior, 2011). This theory talks about organisms and how they will try to just ensure that their needs are met and not look for anything else, (Motivation the whys of behavior, 2011).The article goes on to discuss how critics argue that if this theory were true no one would do thinks that were considered risky, (Motivation the whys of behavior, 2011). Third Dr. Whitbourne discusses the arousal theory, (Motivation the whys of behavior, 2011). Arousal theory is the opposite of drive reduction, (Motivation the whys of behavior, 2011). Arousal theory is the motivation which drives individuals to increase their stimulation and seek out things that are exciting and outside just what the individual needs, (Motivation the whys of behavior, 2011). Dr. Whitbourne goes on to discuss 3 more theories such as the incentive theory, cognitive theory, and the self-determination theory, (Motivation the whys of behavior, 2011). .SummaryMotivation is the process that drives individuals to behave the way they do. Individuals are categorized into two, optimist and pessimist. There are multiple sources of motivations that can be describe as either extrinsic or intrinsic. Whatever the source, individuals are either motivated from within or the world around them. In an article written by Dr. Whitbourne, six theories are described which examine the why of behavior.ReferencesExtrinsic. (2012). In Dictionary.comRetrieved from http//dictionary.reference.com/browse/intrinsic Huitt, W. (2011). Motivation to learn An overview.Educational Psychology Interactive. Valdosta, GA Valdosta State University.Retrieved from http//www.edpsycinteractive.org/topics/motivation/motivate.html Intrinsic. (2012). In Dictionary.com.Retrived from http//dictionary.reference.com/browse/intrinsic Motivation the whys of behavior. (2011, October). Fullfillment at Any Age, (), Retrieved from http//www.psychologytoday.com/blog/fulfillment-any-ag e/201110/motivation-the-why-s-behavior Optimistic. (2012). In Dictionary.com.Retrieved from http//dictionary.reference.com/browse/optimistic Psychology and society. (n.d.).Retrieved from http//www.psychologyandsociety.com/motivation.html

Research on Malaria in Moyale District Essay Example for Free

Research on Malaria in Moyale District EssayMalaria originates from Medieval Italian Mala aria which mean bad air and the infirmity was formerly called Ague or Marsh fever due to its association with swamps and marsh reduce, (Watkins, 2001). Scientific studies on Malaria make their first significant advance in 1880, when Charles Louis Alphonse Laveran a French army doctor working in the military hospital of Constantine in Algeria observed malaria malaria parasite parasites inside the red blood cell of good deal suffering from Malaria.Documentation of report on discovery of origin of Malaria, one of the deadliest diseases of humanity shows that Chimpanzees, native to equatorial Africa have been identified as the original obtain of the parasite that likely moved from them to humans via mosquitoes. Wolfe, (2009) identified several parasites from Chimpanzee that show Malarial jumped from animal to human. Malaria is transmitted by Anopheline mosquitoes the look and role of whic h determine the extent of transmission in a given atomic number 18a. The plasmodium falciparum accounts for the majority of infections and is most lethal.Transmission is affected by mood and geography and a lot coincides with the rainy season. In WHO/UNICEF, (2005) report malaria is one of the most devastating outside(a) public health problems with more than one million deaths and approximately 300-500 million cases of malaria annually. WHO, (2010) report, Malaria is by far the worlds worse tropical parasitic disease, and kills more people than any other communicable disease. Several studies observed that malaria kills more than 3,000 children itemic and is the single most important factor for mortality among children below the age of quintette.Additionally, an estimated 25 million pregnant women are at risk of malaria. Malaria is endemic in a total of 101 countries and territories 45 countries in WHOs African region, 21 in WHOs American region, 4 in WHOs European region, 14 in WHOs Eastern Mediterrarian Region, 8 In WHOs S unwraph East Asia region, and 9 in WHOs Western Pacific region, (report from global health council on impact of infectious diseases. ) WHO, (2007) report has shown that malaria has reached epidemic proportions in many regions of the world and continues to spread unchecked.In many regions of evolution countries malaria exacts an enormous toll in lives, medical costs, and in age of labor lost. According to Roll-Back Malaria (RBM), over 40 per cent of the Worlds children live in malaria-endemic countries and 107 countries and territories are at risk of malaria transmission. Malaria causes 24 percent of low- volt deaths in Equatorial Guinea (UNICEF 2008). Malaria is preventable, if adequate resources are invested in taproom. About 98 percent of Equatorial Guineans live in areas with endemic risk of malaria but only one percent of children under five cessations under insecticide- toughened nets.This is far fewer than in other Coun tries with similar malaria risk. This suggests wanting(predicate) efforts to prevent malaria that would contribute to the realization of the right to health of both children and adults. Children under the age of five, pregnant women, and people living with HIV and AIDS are at gameest risk for developing clinical malaria. More than 80 per cent of these cases occur in sub-Saharan Africa. WHO/RBM, (2004). Malaria is a primary cause of poverty, putting additional burdens on health systems and costing Africa an estimated 12 billion USDs in lost production all year.The spread of the disease is fuelled by several factors climate change, increasing cosmos mobility, more frequent international transport, emergence of multi drug-resistant strains, and military and economic deterioration. Abuja summit in Nigeria in the year 2000, 44 African leaders reaffirmed their shipment to roll back malaria and set interim target for Africa. They challenged other world leaders to join them in recogniz ing the importance of tackling malaria as a disease of poverty. fol deplorableers the Abuja summit, Africa Malaria Day was declared as a day to celeb sum up on malaria and a subsequent UN resolution declared 2001-2010. Roll Back Malaria, peculiarly in Africa, giving prominence to Malaria in United Nations Millennium Development Goals. The Africa Malaria report, released in the year 2003/Nairobi/Geneva/New York by the World wellness Organization (WHO 2005), and the United Nations Childrens Fund (UNICEF), said the death toll from malaria perseveres outrageously high-with a child dying in every 30 seconds.The report gives an African situation for the struggle against the diseases and highlights the urgent need to make effective anti-malarial treatment available to most at risk. The roll back Malaria initiatives has made considerable progress since it was launched in 1998, but we need to increase to combat a devastating disease which is holding back the development of many African cou ntries, states Dr Gro Harlem Brundtland, Director-General of WHO. Nationally Malaria has been a serious public health problem in most Districts of Kenya and the leading cause of morbidity and mortality in Kenya.With more than 70% of the Kenyas universe of discourse living in areas where malaria is transmitted, Malaria is responsible for approximately 30% of out-patient visits (requiring more than eight million out-patient treatments each year), and 19% of all hospital admissions. At least 14,000 children are hospitalized annually for malaria, and there are an estimated 34,000 deaths among children under-five each year. Annually, an estimated six thousand pregnant women suffer from malaria-associated anemia, and four thousand babies are born with low birth weight as a result of maternal anemia, report from government health facility in 2007.Economically, it is estimated that 170 million working days are lost each year because of malaria illness. Culture and pitiable access to healt h facilities lead to increase in cases of malaria. The main thing peculiar with children under 5 historic period is that many cannot sleep under net due to incapability of their parent especially in rural areas, because of the few wages they exactly get from their casual work. Most children again play outside in the grasses or near drainage where mosquitos breeds thus are exposed to mosquito bites.In local situation Malaria is the highest causes death of many people in the region of Moyale and districts of northernmost Eastern province bordering Moyale district from east. Malaria claims the life of 1,500 in the year 1998 and out of that 45 death in Wajir district (Daily Nation, Thursday, February 1998). Sololo Mission Hospital describe the admission of 67 people. Out of 67people, 25 children of less than five geezerhood were reported cases of malaria (SMH/1999). 1. 2 problem articulation/ statement Malaria is Worlds most important parasite infectious disease.Over 2 billion peop le are at risk among 300 and 500 million episodes and over 1 million deaths annually, WHO, (2005). Over 90% of malaria burden are in sub-Saharan Africa. Malaria is one of the planets deadliest diseases and one of the leading causes of sickness and death in the developing world. Documentation also show that Malaria affect child cognitive, physical development and leads to poor school attendance. Malaria also leads to malnutrition and anemic condition in children. More so it also affects adults ability to make a living and attention for their families.At country level malaria affects trade, tourism and foreign direct investment and there is significant correlation between malaria and poverty. An average GDP in malarias countries is five times lower than in non-malarias countries 1. 3 Objectives of the study To establish factors that lead to high prevalence of Malaria in children under five years in Obbu fragment, Moyale District. 1. 4 Specific objectives 1. To determine socio-demog raphic factors modify to Malaria prevalence among the under five children in Obbu division. 2. To establish the level of knowledge on Malaria, among caregivers of children under five in Obbu Division. .Research questions 1. What are the main factors impart to high prevalence of Malaria among the under five children in Obbu division? 2. What is the knowledge level of care givers of children under five years about the risk factors of late treatment and prevention of Malaria? 3. To what extent the level of knowledge on Malaria, among caregivers of children under five in Obbu Division? 1. 6. Hypothesis/assumption There were no factors that contribute to prevalence of malaria in children less than five years in Obbu Division of Solol District 1. 7 apology of the study.Malaria outbreak in mid July 2012, number of cases diagnosed were 82, and 8 out of 10 reported death were children under five (Malaria/SMH/ 20012/3). The prevalence was precipitated by illiteracy, migration lifestyle of p astoralists familiarity and uncontrolled border intermingling and refugees from neighboring countries like Ethiopia and Somali as revealed by the study of Diseases Outbreak Management Unit-DOMU (2002). Socio demographic factors and knowledge about the diseases control and prevention attracted a lot of concern that call for research in these factors.Obbu division has few documentation of the study, so this will be helpful to academia as it will be utilise as document of references for a researcher in the same area of study. The government or other stakeholders will receipts from the findings and may take intervention measures for instance the Ministry of public health to educate people on the better prevention methods. The findings of the study will be used by people of the study area to plan for the prevention of the malaria, since it is preventable at every household. 1. 8 Scope of the studyTo investigate main factors contributing to high prevalence of Malaria among children les s than five years of age in Obbu division of Moyale district. . 1. 9 Limitations 1. Data collection during interview was difficult due to migration of the population but the settlement around the centre of each four location was targeted. 2. Cost of getting trained research assistant was challenging. 3. The study was limited to factors contributing to prevalence of malaria in children less than five years of age. 2. 0 CHAPTER TWO LITERATURE REVIEW 2. 1. 0 Origin of malaria.The history of malaria replete with a number of theories about its aetiology, the earliest theory was the Miasmatic. This theory postulated that swamp air contained chemicals which had been freed from rotting wood. This air was what was responsible for causing malaria (Ransford 1983). It was because of this theory that double storey buildings were preferred during the primordial days of the colonial period as it was believed that miasma did not rise above ground level (Ransford 1983) and that the miasma was thoug ht to spread horizontally ( pansy and King 1992).Ransford and Friedson claim that Africans were the ones who first recognized the link between mosquitoes and malaria (Ransford 1983 Friedson 1996) and in the West it was only known later through the pioneering works of Patrick Mason, Ronald Ross, Grassi and others around the 1890s. 2. 1. 1 prevalence of Malaria. There are 300-500 million clinical cases of Malaria each year resulting in 1. 5 to 2. 7 million deaths (WHO, 2005). worldwide viral forecasting initiative and measuring stick university, made the discovery published in the Aug. 2009 proceedings of the National academy of sciences Wolfe, (2009). Malaria in most countries of Western Pacific and Regional Organizations has significantly declined in the period 1992 to 2000. There is widespread consensus that the change to Artemisinin Based Combination (ACT) in Vietnam was a significant factor in the 98% drop in malaria mortality between 1992 and 2002. The geographical area affect ed by malaria has shrunk considerably over the past 50 years, but control is becoming more difficult and gains are beingness eroded.Increased risk of the disease is linked with changes in land use linked to activities like road building, mining, logging and Agricultural and irrigation projects, particularly in limit areas like the rain forests. Other causes of its spread include global climatic change, disintegration of health services, armed conflicts and mass movements of refugees. According to citation from the August 97 issue of the American magazine the Atlantic Monthly entitled Resurgence of a Deadly Disease by Ellen Rippel Shell.Early success in authoritative infectious diseases has bred arrogance and a belief in whopping big solutions. The emergence of multi-drug resistant strains of parasite is also exacerbating the situation. Via the explosion of easy international travel, imported cases of malaria are now more frequently registered in developed countries. Malaria is no w re-emerging in areas where it was previously under control or eradicated for instance, in the primal Asian and in Korea. Late 1980s, it was noted at several international meetings that the malaria situation getting worse. Figure1. PHOTO OF MOSQUITO THAT TRASMIT MALARIA.Malaria impacts globally. Malaria characteristic varies with geographical location. Malaria is endemic in a total of 101 countries and territories 45 countries in WHOs African region, 21 in WHOs American region, 4 in WHOs European region, 14 in WHOs Eastern Mediterrarian Region, 8 In WHOs South East Asia region, and 9 in WHOs Western Pacific region (Noor et al. ,2002). environmental factors such as temperature, influences Malaria prevalence in endemic areas and the disease is more frequent in rural areas than in urban areas (Noor et al. 2010). In malaria endemic separate of the world, a change in risk of malaria can be the unintended result of economic activity or Agricultural policy that changes the use of land f or example creation of dams, irrigation schemes, commercial tree cropping and deforestation. In todays international world, the phenomenon of airport malaria, or the importing of malaria by international travelers, is becoming crude place. The United Kingdom for example registered 2364 cases of malaria in 1997 and among them are 1134 children, all of them imported by travelers (UNICEF,2009).Documentation of Malaria situation analysis for Zambia (May 2000), show that malaria, particularly that caused by plasmodium falciparum, is an important public health problem in the country. Incidence of the disease has steadily rise from 1976 through 1999, to the point where it is now estimated that the incidence rate, from facility-based data, stands at 331 per green population (Munthali,A. 2001). This is obviously an underestimate as many malaria cases occur at community levels which do not get reported to the formal health system.As expected, those most affected by the disease in Zambia inc lude children under the age of five years. The clinical management of malaria in Zambia was complicated in recent years by a growing resistance to the first line treatment. The clinical failure rate ranges between 24% and 52%, levels beyond which an testing of formal change in drug policy is recommended by international health bodies such as the WHO. Studies on Knowledge, attitudes and practices (KAP) find that, although malaria is widely recognized, there remain many misconceptions about the disease.In Ethiopia a total of 6,214,132 malaria case were diagnosed, treated microscopically or clinically during the year 1995-2000 with an annual average of 1,242,826. The number of malaria cases showed steepy increases from 816,114 in 1995/6 to 2,020,308 in 1998/9. Much of sub-Saharan Africa is exposed to stable, endemic P. falciparum transmission leading to high burdens of morbidity and mortality among children (Murray Lopez 1997 Snow et al, 1999). In addition the classic has witnessed several devastating malaria epidemic during the early 1930s in South Africa (Le Sueur et al. 1993) 1958 in Ethiopia (Fontaine et al,1961), and 1986 in Madagascar (Mouchet,1998).These outbreaks in transmission followed clearly identifiable changes in climate favoring vector and parasite proliferation and were among non-immune populations. Various estimates from these epidemics indicate that between 1% and 14% of the respective populations died. Many factors can influence the ability of parasites and vectors to coexist long enough to result in continued transmission. Several reviews have described the effects on transmission of environmental change, changes in Agriculture and forestry practices and an-made construction (Hackett, 1949 Lindsay Birley, 1996 Lindsay Martens, 1998 Mouchet et al 1998). Global warming and other climatic events such as El Nino also play their role in increasing risk of diseases. The diseases has now spread to highlands areas of Africa for instance, patch El Nino events have an impact on Malaria because the associated weather disturbances influence vector breeding sites, and hence transmission of the disease. African children remained unprotected by an insecticide treated mosquito net in 2007 (Noor et al. , 2010).Documentation of Randomized control trials conducted in Kenya, Gambia and Ghana (UNICEF 2001) show about 30 percent of child death could be avoided if children sleep under bed nets regularly treated with recommended insecticide such as pyrethroids which will remain effective for 6 to 12 months. Malaria kills an African child every 30 seconds, and remains one of the most important threats to the health of pregnant woman and their newborns, Bellamy, (1998). Anderson, (1943) reported that other soldiers contacted the disease in Sudan, Ethiopia and Somali due to high way which connect Nairobi to Addis Ababa in Ethiopia.Weekend Malaria, which happens when city dwellers in Africa return to their rural settings, is becoming an in creasing problem. Africa child under five years of age are chronic victims, suffering an average of six bouts a year. Fatally afflicted children ofttimes die less than 72 hours after developing symptoms. In those children who survive, Malaria also drains vital nutrients from them, impairing their physical and intellectual development. Malaria sickness is also one of the principal reasons for poor school attendance in Kenya.UNICEF recognizes that malaria is one of the five major causes of mortality in children less than five years. 2. 1. 3 Malaria in Kenya. Malaria in Kenya has reached endemic in arid and semi arid region of northwestern Eastern, Rift Valley and Eastern province. In Rift Valley its common in Baringo, Pokot and Laikipia. In Wajir one of the neighboring district in North Eastern province, Medicine Sans Frontiere, MSF (1998) reported that between January and March 1998 the mobile clinics in the town of Wajir treated over 20,000 cases of malaria among an estimated popul ation of 60,00.This represents an absolute minimum attack rate of 33 per 1,000 populations for three months. Consultation data from Merlin (1998), suggest equal attack rates between children less than 5 and the population aged great than five years. In Eastern Province high Malaria cases have been documented in Kitui, Machakos, Tharaka, Isiolo and Moyale district. Moyale district is a potential focus for diseases because of presence of vector habitats and intermingling of people due to border movements. All the key clinical features of Malaria including intermittent fever and weight loss in the background of malnutrition was evidenced.Since the area borders the town of the neighboring countries which often experience outbreak, there has been need of capacity building of care givers and mothers through campaign on behavior and attitudinal changes. Figure 1. 2 MAP OF KENYA SHOWING MALARIA endemic AREA pic 2. 1. 4 Moyale district- Obbu division In mid July 2012 a suspected outbreak of Malaria was reported in Obbu division of Moyale district. The report by investigation aggroup comprising of clinicians, Epidemiologist and Parasitologists established a total of 82 suspected cases.

Development of Soil Nutrient Sensors

Development of speck Nutrient SensorsThe rising demand for feed crops and the growing concern for environment have made it necessary to shift from traditionalistic rustic practices towards modern agricultural practices. Traditional agricultural practices atomic number 18 labor intensive, epoch consuming, expensive and also a ca persona of environment pollution. To achieve sustainable agriculture, it is necessary that the precision agriculture technologies and practices are integrated with the traditional practices, which will also tending to deal with the spatial heterogeneity of the territorial dominion 1. The biggest hurdle in the proper implementation of precision agriculture is the inability to generate information related to a particular site rapidly and at an acceptable approach utilize research lab analysis and primer coat sampling methods.The nutrients required for the healthy growth of a crop are obtained from the flaw. The quality of crop yield depends on the quality of disgrace in which it grows. Therefore, soil testing is an important aspect of precision agriculture. The proposed research get to is an effort towards the conception and development of a soil monitoring musical arrangement that displace be utilize to estimate the carbamide content in soil. The dodging makes use of Partial Least Squares Regression technique (PLSR) for the estimation of urea. The system can be made portable, smart, little cost and user friendly through the use of embedded systems. With some modifications the system can be designed to estimate more than one soil particle. The dissertation is organized in the fol imprinting chapters as described below.Chapter I (Introduction)Agriculture not only gives riches to a nation, but the only riches she can c only her own2. The growth in the demand for food, feed and fiber globally is anticipated to grow by 70 percent. The demand for crops for industrial use and in the production of bio-energy is also expec ted to rise simultaneously. The increasing demand for agricultural goods will put huge pressure on the limited resources available. The increase in urban settlement areas will force agriculture to compete for defeat and water. Agriculture will therefore have to adapt itself to newer conditions and at the same time will have to address issues related to climate change, maintenance of biodiversity and delivery of natural habitats 3. To meet these demands, farmers therefore need to equip themselves with new technologies so as to increase productivity with limited publication of resources.Sustainable resource focussing is the need of the hour. Conservation of soil quality is crucial to sustainability in agriculture. This has led to a shift from the use of traditional agricultural practices to modern agricultural practices so that the available resources are utilized in a sustainable manner. The modern technique of farming known as precision farming is base on the concept of site specific crop management. This method takes into consideration variability exhibited by the soil and accordingly inputs are applied based on the topical anesthetic requirements within a matter. Soil sensing plays an important role in precision farming. Large numbers of soil sensing elements are organism developed all around the world to measure different soil properties. Some of which are calm down in the research and development stage and some of which are commercially available.Based on their principle of working(a) these soil sensors can be cliqueified as followsElectrical and Electromagnetic sensors Depending on the composition of soil infra test, electrical capacitance or inductance, resistivity or conductivity of the soil is metrical. The response time of these sensors is very fast, they have high durability and are of low cost. These sensors are commercially available.Optical and Radiometric sensors These sensors, through the use of electromagnetic waves, measure the level of energy that is either absorbed or reflected by the soil particles depending on the soil composition. The properties of the soil are measured victimization visible and near-infrared wavelengths 4. They can be used for the estimation of CEC, soil texture, moisture and other soil parameters with the help of appropriate entropy analysis techniques.Mechanical sensors these sensors measure soil resistance with the help of a tool used in the soil. The measure of resistance offered by the soil has a relation with the compaction of the soil which is a spatially varying property of soil.Acoustic sensors and Pneumatic sensors Though these are a class of mechanical sensors, they can be used as an alternative means for the differentiation of physical and mechanical characteristics of soil. Measurements taken using pneumatic and acoustic sensor have been used to correlate soil texture and compaction. The application of acoustic sensors in characterizing the physical state of soil is n ot very clear and requires more research work.Electrochemical sensors These sensors produce an product voltage through the use of ion selective membranes, depending on the activity of ions under study such as H+, K+, NO3 , Na+, and so forth Soil pH sensors using this technique are already commercially available. The extraction of ions such as potassium in real time is still not possible even though the concept appears to be simple.There is a need to develop fast, real time and portable soil sensors which can generate soil report instantly. Thus, the fuss of designing and developing a smart soil monitoring system was hypothesize using a reconfigurable embedded system platform.Chapter II (Literature Survey and Objectives)The conventional laboratory methods of soil testing have a number of limitations such as they are expensive, labor intensive and time consuming. As such new methods of soil testing are being developed across the globe. A number of soil nutrient sensing techniques a re in the stage of development and testing. These sensors can be broadly classified into two types depending on the techniques of measurement being used.1. Optical sensing uses reflectance spectroscopy technique wherein the light that is absorbed/reflected by soil particles is measured. Since optical sensing techniques have the advantage of being non-destructive they are more widely used as compared to electrochemical sensing techniques 5, 6. Soil color analysis can be used for estimating soil organic matter content through the use of optical sensors 7. The visual and near-infrared spectral reflectance in optical sensing can be used for estimating soil texture, moisture, CEC etc. 8.2. Electrochemical sensing is based on the measurement of received or voltage generated between the sensing electrode and the reference electrode. The amount of voltage or current measured is related to the preoccupation of the selected ions such as H+, K+, NO3-, etc. 8. Ion selective electrodes made of glass or polymer membrane, or ion-selective field arrange transistors are used for the measurement of soil fertility. Ion-selective membrane sensors have a huge potential in the development of on-the-go soil nutrient(s) and pH sensors 9. Currently, the accuracy of the results using these sensors is low as compared to those using laboratory tests, but this can be taken care of by increasing the sampling density.Use of Spectroscopic techniques in the estimation of soil properties has been demonstrated since 1970s 10. Various methods using spectral analysis have been proposed for the measurement of the soil properties. Methods that are based on the physical and analytical characteristics of the manifestation and chemometric based empirical methods provide good effective predictability. Therefore, the relation between soil properties and soil absorption can be used to develop reversions using field and laboratory data for calibration. Spectroscopic techniques are found to be faster, can provide real time measurements and are of low cost, as compared to conventional methods and hence are found to be more suitable when there are more samples and analysis to be done. Also, unlike laboratory testing methods which require sample pre-processing and the use of chemical extractants, spectroscopic techniques can be used directly, thus saving on cost and time 11.Thus, the problem of developing a soil nutrient sensor using RF spectroscopy based on the dielectric principle was formulate. The thesis emphasizes on the design and development of the sensor and the use of embedded platform to make it portable, real time and user friendly system through the use of DSP algorithms.ObjectivesIn beau monde to meet the global requirements of increased crop productivity and sustainable agriculture, there is an urgent need of developing soil sensors which are fast, accurate and portable. Also, the problem was formulated keeping in mind the conditions of Indian farmers. Indian farmer s are mainly small farmers who are poor, technically unfit and cannot afford modern tools. This research work is being undertaken with the main objective of developing a fast, portable, cost effective and user friendly soil monitoring system to analyze the fertility billet of the soil.The objectives of the research work are the design of a dielectric booth to measure absorption loss at RF frequencies for dissimilar soil nutrients and to use this RF data to develop a FPGA based smart soil monitoring system for accurate prediction of soil content using PLSR technique. The system shall be user friendly as well as reprogrammable for changed environmental conditions.Chapter III (System Design for Soil Monitoring System)The block diagram of proposed design for Soil Monitoring System is as shown in Figure 1. The design consists of RF data obtained from Scalar Network Analyzer fed as input to Altera DE2 plug-in with target as NIOS II FPGA. The RF data is obtained from the soil sensor co nnected between a tracking generator and a spectrum analyser.A soil sensor based on the dielectric loss technique is designed and constructed to measure the RF responses of various soil nutrients. The cell is rectangular in puzzle out with outer dimensions 13cmx2cmx2.5cm and is made up of PMMA sheets. The inside surface of the cell is lined with gold foil and the same is connected to the outer shield of the feed connectors so as to provide the necessary shielding effect. The outer surface of the cell is covered with a copper foil and is also provided with the necessary shielding effect. A wire made of gold is connected from the input feed connectors to the output feed connector at centre of the cell. The RF spectrum of a sample is measured by placing it in the cell. A tracking generator is used for injecting an RF signal into the sample through the central gold wire. Thus, a dielectric cell consisting of the central wire, the outer copper shield and the sample is formed. The signal strength starts cut as it propagates through the central wire from the input end to the output end of the cell, due to the dielectric loss associated with the sample solution. Thus, an output signal proportional to the absorption loss of the sample solution is captured by the RF spectrum analyzer connected at the receiver end of the cell. Signal Hound USB-TG44A tracking generator and Signal Hound USB-SA44B spectrum analyzer are used with both the instruments working in the frequency range of 1Hz-4.4GHz.Figure 1 Block diagram of the Soil Monitoring SystemFigure 2 shows the RF spectra for urea in the range 10MHz to 4.4GHz.Figure 2 RF Spectra of urea.Figure 3 Section of urea spectra with varying concentrationsSamples for obtaining the RF responses of various soil components are prepared by dissolving the required component in distilled water. The amount of the component to be added to water was calculated from the data obtained from agricultural department. This amount was taken as t he mean(prenominal) concentration of a particular component found in the soil. Samples of varying concentrations of the soil components are prepared and denoted as 1 for normal, 0.5 for half the normal, 2 for doubly and 3 for thrice. The soil components considered for the study are urea, potash, phosphate, calcium carbonate and sodium chloride.The frequency range of 10 MHz-4.4GHz is divided into smaller frequency ranges based on the unique frquencies at which the variation in the attenuation is found as per the change in the concentration of the soil component. A set of recorded spectra for various combinations of the five soil components with concentrations ranging from 0.5 to 1.5 are used in the calibration file. In order to predict the unknown concentration of urea in a sample, the find spectra containing the urea signature along with the other components is passed through signal conditioning stage. The output from Spectrum Analyzer is stored in the computer. This data is then fed to a CYCLONE II device with Altera Nios II processor running on it. The recorded spectra are then passed through SIMPLS algorithm running on NIOS II processor. The algorithm predicts the concentration of unknown sample (Urea) and displays the result on LCD or a computer screen. The SNR of the detected spectra must be sufficiently high so as to provide reliable urea specific information and therefore data processing is needed to identify spectral features of urea from the combination spectra originating from interfering intercellular substance components like potash, phosphate, sodium chloride and calcium carbonate.We can extend the use of this system for the analysis of other soil components by modifying the processing algorithms required to analyze that component without changing the hardware.Chapter IV (Multivariate Data outline)It is a statistical analysis technique used in the case of data consisting of multiple variables. Due to the advancements in the field of informatio n technology there is a huge amount of data being generated in various fields. Though the magnitude of data available is huge, it is still a challenge to derive effectual information and knowledge from this data.Multivariate Analysis can be used to derive meaningful information for the advance of process performance and product quality. Over the last decade, multivariate analysis is being successfully used to monitor and model chemical/biological processes 12.Techniques using multivariate data analysis are widely used in the analysis of spectral data both quantitatively and qualitatively. Quick analysis of entangled samples from their spectral signatures can be done using standard tools like Partial Least Squares (PLS), Principal Component Regression (PCR), Principal Component Analysis (PCA), Multivariate Curve Resolution (MCR) and discriminant analysis based on chemometric techniques 13. Partial least squares (PLS) isone of the recent multivariate data analysis technique particu larly useful in situations where there is a large set of independent variables (i.e., predictors). A set of dependent variables can be predicted from this set of independent variables by using PLS. Partial Least Squares (PLS) can be an effective tool for the analysis of data as it has minimum constraints on scales of measurement, size of sample, and residual distributions. It consists of methods for regression and classification, and techniques for reducing dimension and tools for modeling. The basic assumption on which the PLS methods work is that a small number of latent variables that are not directly observed or measured are used to drive the observed data from a process or a system. The technique of PLS for projecting the observed data to its latent building was developed by Herman Wold and coworkers. PLS is now being used as a standard tool in the analysis of a wide spectrum of chemical data problems in chemometrics. The successful data analysis of PLS in chemometrics has led to its increase use in other scientific fields such as bioinformatics, food research, medicine, pharmacology, social sciences, physiology etc.PLS is a multivariate technique that transforms the input-output data onto a smaller latent space, by extracting a small number of principal factors having an incorporeal structure. The extraction of the factors is done in such a way that it provides maximum correlation with the dependent variable 14. To model linear relations between multivariate measurements, PLS is used as a standard tool.Multivariate Calibration Model for Soil Monitoring SystemMultivariate spectroscopic data can be analyzed using the PLSR model. PLSR is one of the techniques of multiple linear regressions and is probably the least restrictive of the various multivariate techniques used in multiple linear regression models. This feature of PLSR makes it possible to be used in situations when there are limitations on the use of other multivariate methods, for example, when the predictor variables are many as compared to number of observations.PLSR can be used as an elementary analysis tool for the selection of suitable predictor variables and in the identification of outliers. PLSR model based on SIMPLS algorithm using C language is developed and ported on NIOS II platform to estimate the urea concentration.The PLSR model is validated for the following cases model 1 Changing urea concentrations from below normal to above normal i.e. from 0.5 to 2 and keeping other components at their normal concentration value i.e. 1. character 2 Changing the concentration of each of the other soil component from 0.5 to 2 and keeping urea constant in all the cases.Chapter V (Design of FPGA squashy Cores for Soil Monitoring System)DSP functions can be implemented using two different types of programming platforms digital signal processors (DSP) and field programmable gate arrays (FPGAs). Digital signal processors are microprocessors specifically designed for handling DSP tasks, while FPGAs are reconfigurable signal processors.The factors that make FPGAs more suitable, particularly for high performance computing applications are (i) gigantic potential for implementation of parallelism (ii) The control logic is embedded (iii) On-board memory in FPGA helps to overcome the limitation set by number of I/O pins on processor logics memory access bandwidth and hence results into significant performance benefits (iv) A higher capacity FPGA can be used on the same board as an older device, to support performance upgrades.DSP Implementation on Embedded systemThe implementation of DSP algorithms is done on Altera platform. A Nios II system is designed to measure the concentration of urea in soil. The Nios II system is the heart of the instrument which controls the various modules of the system like interacting with 12 bit ADC and playacting the SIMPLS algorithms on the spectral data to estimate the concentration of urea. The whole interface and algorithm s are implemented using 32-bit NIOS II soft-core ported on CYCLONE II FPGA.Chapter VI (Analysis, Results and Conclusion)The thesis covers the design and development of soil sensor based on the dielectric technique. The technique proposed the use of RF signals in the range of 10MHz-4.4GHz and analyzing the detected spectra in the soil sample for urea signature. In this thesis a novel Soil Monitoring System is developed using RF spectroscopy based on embedded technology. An Altera DE2 board based on NIOS II soft-core platform and having target as CYCLONE II (EP2C6) is used to estimate the urea content in soil in the RF range of 10MHz-4.4GHz. SIMPLS algorithm for PLSR model is developed using C language and embedded on the NIOS II platform for the estimation of urea concentration. The designed sensor was tested for its precision by recording the spectra of a particular component over a number of times. The PLSR model was validated by calculating percentage error under various condition s. It was found that the predicted urea values showed percentage error which was within the acceptable levels required for device development.

Kicking Performance and Kick Co-ordination Training

Kicking Performance and Kick Co-ordination TrainingThe effectuate of a stance and commission co-ordination bringing up class on press down subdivision velocity, lump velocity and knee joint extensor bearing Differences surrounded by male and feminine stem swelling kneaders.Footb every last(predicate) (also known as soccer) is one of the most popular team sports worldwide (Katis Kellis, 2007) with hundreds of millions purported to play (Masuda et al, 2005) and in accordance is watched on 6 continents (Ekstrand, 1994). im perpetrateable to this popularity, footb on the whole is a widely researched atomic number 18a with the volume of literature extensive. discordant research programmes have been undertaken in the area of foot thud kick biomechanics with a oscilloscope of parameters being measured and analysed, in an attempt to understand the fundamental skills required by the sport, especially the maximum soccer kick (Lees Nolan, 1998). Although the field is widely r esearched gaps stock-still transpire. One of these gaps is gender differences little research is documented on the kick biomechanics of womens football as express by Barfield et al (2002), who stirs the rapid rise in womanish participation in soccer worldwide has not been followed by a corresponding increase in the number of studies biomechanically that target womanish propel patterns to gear up if differences exist mingled with males and pistillates. Lee and Nolan (1998) state that success in football depends on kicking performance, with new aspects of this being identified (Kathis Kellis, 2007). Shan and Westerhoff (2005) believe that the scientific understanding of the sport is not yet on the same echelon as its practice, subsequently its partakers acquire their skills not through research based instruction hardly through individual experience suggesting that biomechanical feedback may facilitate an athlete further.Kicking performance and kick co-ordinationBiomechanic al kicking success in football has been measured predominately by maximum ball velocity (Markovic et al, 2006) with Dorge et al (2002) stating it could be this hotfoot that is particularly important when kicking towards goal. When kicking a ball, players path on use the most steal form dependant on the intent and nature of the outcome (Numone et al, 2002) and according to a call for by Grant et al (1998), who analysed entropy from the 1998 World Cup, the instep kick (IK) ( check over contour 1) and sidefoot kick are the most commonly used techniques to score. The ball velocity of the maximum IK is the main indicator in kicking performance (Orloff et al, 2008) and has been said to be the result of various factors including technique (Lees and Nolan, 1998), gender (Barfield et al, 2002), heftiness effectualness and indicant of players (De Proft et al, 1988 Dutta Subraminium, 2002).The IK is a fundamental skill that is used on many cause during football (see flesh 1), with Orloff et al (2008) stating that the mechanics in instep kicking are critical in determining kick performance. Transfer of momentum from the thigh to the stage is believed to play an important role in instep kicking, however these claims have not been conclusively quantified (Dunn Putnam, 1988).The IK involves a sequence of momentum from proximal (thigh) to distal (shank and foot) carcass surgical incisions in the kicking branch as it is a swing action (Barfield et al, 2002) that should be a natural fluid motion (Clagg et al, 2009). When a kick is performed the proximal incision initiates the straw man taking the kicking leg backwards, with the distal segment lagging behind, preceding movement of the leg occurs when the proximal segment has reached its potential at backswing and is brought forward whilst the knee continues to flex (Wickstrom, 1975 Dorge et al, 2002). This is followed by a deceleration of the proximal segment due to motion dependant moments from the shank (Pu tnam, 1991) upon ball impact the proximal segment is almost stationary, at which point the distal segment is accelerating and vigorously extending about the knee to almost full extension at ball impact (Wickstrom, 1975) (see common fig tree 2). At the point of contact, of instep to ball, powerful kickers keep the foot/ankle complex locked and plantarflexed, as a consequence the forces that propel the ball are maximised (Hay, 1996 Tsaousidid and Zatsiorsky, 1996).Lower limb velocities (Levanon Dapena, 1988) are said to be an important determinant of ball velocity. Manolopoulos et al (2006) state that a greater shank velocity is indicative of a to a greater extent than powerful shot, the study conducted by Manolopoulous et al (2006) concluded that a strength and kick co-ordination educate programme over a ten week rate of flow can cause an improvement in angular velocities of segments. A study conducted by Barfield et al (2002) raise that a greater ball velocity was found wit h greater angular velocity of the distal segment (in male footballers). From this literature it can be assumed that a person with a high lower limb velocity should have a high ball velocity.It has been theorised that the length, speed and careen of approach are the most important aspects of the preparatory phase, before movement transpires, having a noteworthy effect on football kick success (Isokawa Lees, 1988 Kellis et al, 2004).When a football kick is performed the athlete may kick the ball from a stationary position or approach the ball from a certain distance (Kathis Kellis, 2007), Opavsky (1988) states that higher ball velocities are established when there is a rails approach, of at least two to three steps, to the ball in contrast to a stagnant approach. Another important point is that a ball depart in most cases be moving towards the player whence the player will not be photographting a stationary ball as is often the case in laboratory conditions, hold water by Tol et al (2002). Kellis and Katis (2007) state that higher ball speed values have been during competition in contrast to a laboratory dance orchestrating.Isokawa Lees (1988) concluded that on average maximum swing leg velocity occurred at an approach fish of between 30 and 45, with a maximum velocity ensuing at 45. From this finding it can be alleged that 45 is the optimal approach move for a maximum velocity instep soccer kick (Clagg et al, 2009). Maximum ball speed and its relationship with accuracy is one which has been investigated with interesting results. Asami et al (1976) reported that by demanding both(prenominal) speed and accuracy from players, an 80% drop of the maximal value occurs as a result, this is a considerable reduction however is further supported in literature stating that accurate kicking is achieved through slower ball velocities and kicking motion (Katis Kellis, 2007 Lees Nolan, 1998 Teixeira et al, 1999). Katis Kellis (2007) deduce that a defined targ et, such as a goal, will envision the actual constraints on accuracy, with its manipulation railing to a trade-off between speed and accuracy of kick.Another factor that could inhibit a maximal velocity IK is the kicking limb chosen. Many studies have found that higher ball velocities are found when football players kick with their overabundant limb as opposed to kicks with the non-dominant limb this has been attributed to higher foot speeds and a better inter- segmental pattern (Numone et al, 2006 Dorge et al, 2002) Manopoluous et al (2006) state that ball speed is the result of several segmental actions of the body during a kick, figure 3 illustrates the movements of the body segments during different phases of the kick.Female and Male footballersStudies regarding male football performance in relation to kick biomechanics is a well researched area, however this does not correlate to the lack of knowledge contacted when researching for female information. This statement is supp orted by McLean et al (2005) and Hewett et al (2006) who both acknowledge that hardly a(prenominal) studies have characterised or examined female athletic performance in specific sports such as soccer, along with the assertion from Barfield (2002) that the rapid rise in female participation in soccer worldwide has not been followed by a corresponding increase in the number of studies biomechanically that target female kicking patterns to determine if differences exist between males and females. It is thought that the identification of kinematic differences between the sexes could potentially play a critical role in the teaching and training of aspiring female soccer players (Barfield et al, 2002). Consequently it can be assumed that female studies should be regarded to be of high importance and those found could help to eradicate huge differences between the sexes. With this said there are a few studies that have compared male and females, and studies that have solely looked at fem ales.A study by Barfield et al (2002) investigated differences between elite female and male soccer players. The study concluded that males kick the ball with greater ball velocity on the instep kick than women (see table 1 for mean ball velocity achieved in this study) and the differences in kinematic variables investigated were evidentially different between the sexes, although this was small. However in this study there was one exception to the case, as it was found that one female generated greater ball velocity on two of her three kicks than the males on her dominant side, suggesting that not everyone follows the trend. A study by Tant et al (1991) supports Barfield et al (2002) findings, as it was found that male players produce greater ball speeds than their female counterparts, they attributed this finding to greater strength that males recorded as well-tried on an isokinetic ergometer.In contrast to these findings, a study by Orloff et al (2008) comparing the kinetics and kinematics of the plant leg position between males and female collegial soccer player during an instep kick, found that ball speed did not differ significantly between the two sexes as was hypothesised. Table 1 illustrates mean ball velocities, ranging from 15 to 30 m.s-1, achieved during a number of studies most of which occurred with the instep kick. Only one study shown provides details of a mean female ball velocity erstwhile more indicating the lack of research on female football participation.Strength trainingIt has been stated that kicking performance when measured by means of maximal ball velocity, can be improved by strength training (DeProft et al, 1988 Jelusic et al, 1992 Taiana et al, 1993), relating to Wisloff et al (2004) who states that maximal strength is an important factor in successful soccer performance this is because of the apparent demands visible from the game. Strength has been defined as the integrated results of several force producing ponderositys perf orming maximally, either i more or lesstrically or fighting(a)ally during a adept voluntary effort of a defined task (Hoff Helgerud, 2004) Schmidtbleicher (1992) states that strength influences all other components and thus it is located in an upper hierarchal level. The use of strength training is a common means of improving muscle function and has been said to develop performance of kicking skill through apposite training (Masuda et al, 2005).Gomez et al (2008) believe that the coalescing of strength training with technical training involving motor tasks is required for improvements in performances to occur, this relates to the traditional training principle of specificity Behm Sale (1993) and Sale (1992) support this principle as they believe that training is intended to correspond to specificity in sport itself, this is in terms of contraction type, contraction force, movements and velocity. This can be related to football training, since the fundamental aspect of football i s kicking and this involves a complex series of synergistic movements of the lower limbs, which in essence would be extremely complex to imitate with simple strength-training movements (Bangsbo, 1994).Therefore strength training should be integrated into football training with several types and speeds of training involving the actual movement pattern in order to increase performance (Masuda et al, 2005). If a relationship between muscle strength and performance exists then it can be assumed that positive effects should become perceptible when measuring ball velocity, if these performance enhancing training benefits are not evident then athletes may not be motivated to enrol in strength training (Myer et al, 2005).Myer et al (2005) conducted a study that explored the effects that a comprehensive neuromuscular training programme had over a plosive speech sound of six weeks. The investigators measured performance and lower extremity movement biomechanics in female athletes, it was co ncluded that female athletes who trained with this six week programme could gain performance enhancements and significant improvements in movement biomechanics. Myer et al (2005) states that female athletes may especially benefit from multi-component neuromuscular training, as females often display decreased service line levels of strength and power when compared with their male counterparts. The previous statement is supported by Kraemer et al (2003) and Kraemer et al (2001) who believe that a comprehensive training programme may significantly increase power, strength and neuromuscular program line and therefore decrease gender differences in these measures.Campo et al (2009) conducted a study over a spot of 12 weeks on female soccer players this involved the undertaking of a plyometric program. It was found that this program produced improvements in explosive strength in the female athletes and consequently this improvement could be transferred to soccer kick performance in term s of ball velocity this study also lends evidence to the use of plyometrics in a strength training program.Studies by Aagaard et al (1996) and Trolle et al (1993) found similarities within their results, since no significant improvements in kicking performance were established after knee-extension strength training. However De Proft et al (1988), Gomez et al (2008) and Monolopoulos et al (2006) all conducted strength training programmes that combined strength with another form of training, football training, plyometric exercises and technique exercises (kick co-ordination) respectively, found significant improvements in kicking performance (maximal instep football kick). The studies by Gomez et al (2008) and Myer et al (2005) took transport over a 6wk period, with the study by Monolopoulos et al (2006) taking sit over 10 weeks and Campo et al (2009) over a 12 week period, suggesting that the length of a training programme is interchangeable to gain relevant results. Hoff Helgerud (2004) state that research based on strength training is often not conclusive this may be due to the variances in measuring techniques.Knee musclesVarious studies have examined the muscle activation patterns that arise during a football kick one of the findings to come from studies is the high activation of knee muscle groups (De Proft et al, 1988). To examine this further, maximal isokinetic selective information has been undertaken to study the moment of force of the knee extensors and flexors, this has been investigated in male players (Brady et al, 1993 Oberg et al, 1984 Oberg et al, 1986), female players (Reilly Drust, 1997) and in relation to football kick performance (Cabri et al, 1988 Poulmedis, 1988 Reilly Drust, 1997).Rapid knee flexion and extension is an important part of a football kick as the knee flexes then extends at impact, this movement is accompanied by a stretch of the knee musculature during backswing ensued by immediate shortening during distal segment mov ement (Katis Kellis, 2009). The action of the proximal segment being brought forward whilst the distal segment lags behind (as the knee is still flexing) serves to stretch the extensor muscles of the proximal segment before shortening of them is needed, this necessitates the generation of large end-point speed (Lees Nolan, 1998). It can be assumed that if the knee extensor muscles are powerful then they should facilitate in large end point speed (greater ball velocity).Isokinetic muscle scrutiny is often used to evaluate strength within sport, with a range of data obtainable from its use (Ozcakar et al, 2003) however controversy surrounds its application. Wisloff et al (2004) believe that isokinetic tests do not reflect the actual movements of the lower limb segments during a football kick, and Dvir (1996) states that this is due to the nature of examination knee extensors, as it is a single-joint configuration, it is limited in functional scope.A study by Reilly Drust (1994), h ave reported results for female soccer players that show a high correlation between ball speed and knee extensor strength, this is supported by McLean and Tumilty (1993) who state that maximal strength of knee extensor muscles is an important determinant of kick performance. Asami et al (1982) report that the ball velocity and knee extensor strength relationship of the kicking limb may well depend on the skill level of the players, suggesting that the strength of the muscles in the knee has less input on ball velocity in football players whom are more skilled. This statement implies that less skilled players rely more on their muscular strength than skill. De Proft et al (1988) conducted a strength training programme for footballers and found a 25% increase in c at one timentric muscle strength of extensors.Studies have shown that knee extensor strength and kick performance however did not have a positive relationship, as for example Masuda et al (2005) found that knee extension/fle xion strength was not correlated with the ball velocity and Aagaard et al (1996) conducted a 12 week training programme on the isokinetic strength of the knee extensors and flexors, with an increase in isokinetic and concentric strength found, but it was concluded that this gain did not help facilitate improvements in performance.Expectations and hypothesesFrom incumbent literature it is expected that the use of a strength training programme integrated with technical game play, will have a positive significant improvement from pre-test to post-test on both females and males as previous research has shown that a strength training programme improves performance (Manolopoulos et al., 2004 De Proft et al., 1988 Dutta Subramanium, 2002), however the female group are expected to have a bigger improvement as they often have lower level of strength to start (Myer et al, 2005) leaving more get on for improvement, and men will have a better kicking performance determined by ball velocity a s they possess more power (Barfield et al, 2002 Tant et al, 1991). It is also expected that an improvement in knee muscle strength, limb velocity and foot velocity at ball contact will lead to an improvement in ball velocity as it can be said that kicking performance can be related to leg muscle strength as it is the muscles which are directly responsible for the increasing speed of the foot and therefore resultant ball velocity (Lees Nolan, 1998). This information leads to the hypotheses for this study.It is hypothesised that after a strength training and kick co-ordination programme both men and women will find significant improvements in their kicking performance and knee extensor strength, females will have a greater improvement in the pre to post test results than their male counterparts, men will have greater ball velocity both pre and post test than women, improvements in knee strength, limb velocity and foot velocity will lead to an improvement in ball velocity.Materials an d methodsPilot testingBefore any real data collection commenced two pilot tests were conducted. This was to enable any aspects of the testing procedure to be checked, allowing areas of weakness and uncertainty to be enhanced and/or changes needing to occur to be implemented before actual testing transpired.The first pilot test involved kinematic analysis data collection, using Qualysis Oqus 3D motion get under ones skin system, at a sampling rate of 500 Hz, under laboratory conditions. A actor was marked up with a lower limb marker set (see figure 7 and 8), a warm up and relevant instructions were given. 5 maximum velocity kicks were performed with the dominant foot at a target (1.82m x 1.2m) set 6 metres away from the position of the ball, a 2metre approach distance of self selected approach angle was allowed and a Sports radar precision gun (SRA 3000) was positioned behind the target. Uncertainties regarding target size, approach distance and quality of data collection were put under scrutiny. Collaboration with the participant allowed for uncertainties such as target size and distance of approach to be modified. Quality of data was checked and it appeared not all parts of the movement were captured or markers visible at all cartridge holders (see figure 4). Due to these findings the pilot testing resulted in changes to the planned protocol, such as approach distance (an otiose metre allowance was given), bandage size (was halved to prevent covering of markers), calibration technique in regards to area dynamically covered was change magnitude (to cover all movement performed) and appropriate marker placement took place (incorrect palpitation had previously taken place).The second pilot test was an extension of the first, relevant changes were do as noted in pilot test 1, with testing on the isokinetic dynamometer (ISOCOM- isokinetic technology, eurokinetics) included for strength data. A warm up was conducted front to use, with the involvement of dyn amic movements to help replicate the movement on the isokinetic dynamometer, once completed 5 practice trials took place followed by 3 trials that were collected as the data. This allowed for any time restraints for the two conjoined to be noted. It was found that the testing on the isocom took longer than the kinematic data, as it was expected that this would be roughly the same time so instruction execution of a suitable time system could occur. Marker issues previously noted in pilot 1 were not problematic this could be due to the increased area of calibration and anatomic landmark markers not being covered by bandages. Figure 5 shows that most data was captured and tracked, giving evidence to improvements make being effective, when comparing figure 4 and 5 against each other. The extra metre approach distance allowance proved successful with collection of data running more smoothly.ParticipantsSixteen amateur football players volunteered to participate in this study, eight fe males and eight males. Participants were split with regards to gender and assigned to either the female control group (FCG) (n= 4 females age 20 0.8 years height 169 5.8cm body mass 68.9 11.1 kg all mean std), the male control group (MCG) ( n= 4 males age, 21 1 year height 177.5 7 cm body mass 77 10 kg all mean std), the female strength training experimental group (FTG) (n= 4 females age 20 1.3 year height 160 1.8 cm body mass 58.1 4.3 kg all mean std ) or the male strength training experimental group (MTG) (n= 4 males age 17 1. 2 year height 174.9 4.1 cm body mass 73.1 13.7 kg all mean std). All females were right foot dominant, with 6 males being right foot dominant and 2 left foot dominant. Foot dominance was self selected based on the players reply to which foot they preferred kicking with to gain a maximal ball velocity outcome. Subjects were communicate about the requirements, benefits and risks of the study, and completed an informed consent form and Par- Q p rior to any testing (see Appendix).Kick performance test / Biomechanical testingIn accordance to the study of Masuda et al (2004) kick performance was evaluated by measuring the maximal and mean velocity of the ball, by the use of Sports radar precision gun (SRA 3000), and a set number of trials in which the ball hit the target (5 times). Other measurements from this maximal kick were also taken by means of Qualysis Oqus 3D motion capture system, this uses multiple cameras (an eight camera system) to reconstruct three dimensional movement data this was captured at a sampling rate of 500 Hz for 5 seconds. This enabled human movement analysis during the execution of a motor task (instep kick) to be traced via the use of reflective markers, gathering quantitative information (Cappozzo et al, 2005). The calibrated anatomical system technique (CAST) marker set was used (Cappozzo et al, 1995), each participant was instrumented with 44 retroflective markers (see figure 7 and 8). All marker s and clusters used when capturing the data was with the aim to not significantly modify the performance being captured and measured as stated by Brand and Crownshield (1981). These markers were placed on anatomical landmarks (medial and lateral side of proximal and distal end of segements) by palpation using guidance from Croce et al (2005), and on segments using clusters in accordance with Manal et al (2000) who state that a plastered shell with a cluster of four markers is the optimal configuration for a cluster set. Specific shoes were provided for all participants, with the anatomical landmarks placed on these prior to testing (figure 6).Before data collection of each participant commenced, the motion capture system was calibrated (see figure 9a) to allow information gathering of spacial location of anatomical landmarks in regards to a known frame of reference (Cappozzo et al, 1994). This occurred by the use of a wand, which carries two markers of a given distance (750.5mm), and is made to coincide with the target anatomical landmarks by moving dynamically through the volume of cameras (Cappozzo et al, 2005 Richards, 2008) over a calibration frame placed in the data collection area (see figure 9b), this is removed so data for the intended activity (instep kick) can be performed and recorded. A static of each participant with clusters and anatomical markers was then taken (see figure 10) asking participants to gain a posture where anatomical markers can be seen by two or more cameras for at least a frame. at a time this was achieved only tracking markers were kept on (thigh and shank clusters, anterior superior iliac spine (ASIS), posterior superior iliac spine (PSIS), greater trochanter, iliacs, foot markers except 1st and 5th metatarsals), as Cappozzo (1984) states markers used for identifying anatomical landmarks should be removed before physical movement is performed. Qualysis course of instruction Manager (QTM) was the software used to capture the data including statics, dynamic movement and calibration.The set-up design for the kick performance test can be seen in figure 11. Specific instructions were given to participants regarding their kicks, it was stated that although the kicks that missed the target would be repeated, they should not sacrifice speed in order to improve accuracy. A ball of standard size and standard inflation (Fdration Internationale de Football Association, FIFA, standard) was used. A warm-up was conducted, this took place on a treadmill (5-10 mins) followed by stretching, once the candidate felt they had been sufficiently warmed up practice trials took place. 2-3 practice trials were implemented allowing participants to acquaint themselves with test equipment and kicking conditions. Participants were allowed to self select their approach angle to the ball (between 0 to 60), the only restraint utilised was the approach distance to the ball participants were allowed a run up of between 2 to 3 metres th is distance was marked and made noticeable to the participants. 5 successful trials were recorded on the dominant leg, a successful trial was classed as one which hit the target and the motion capture data was seen to be adequate, only 3 of these trials were analysed (data deemed as poor quality was discarded). This testing took place both pre and post intervention.Once data collection had been completed in QTM, the information was used and markers labelled including both static and dynamic data. For dynamic data, this took place through naming the markers in a dynamic frame and processing this to the corresponding data. An aim model was built, this was then generated and batch processed to all the dynamic trials, the checking of each anatomical frame ensued to ensure all markers were labelled correctly. Once this procedure was completed data was then exported to Visual 3D for further analysis and model building. Data from QTM (see figure 10) was built in to actual body segments tha t could be visually seen and recognised this occurred through model building on Visual 3D. Figure 12 shows some examples of how the right hand side of the body was built the same was done for the left side. Once model building had been completed, all trials were checked and different pipelines were put in place (a set of commands that can change or produce data wanted). An interpolation pipeline was conducted on the data to fill in missing data points, a ten frame gap fill was instrumented, filling in gaps more than this suggest that data is of poor quality. A low pass filter (using Butterworth filter) pipeline was put in place on the data, to smooth and remove noise that could be due to relative and absolute errors (soft tissue artefacts) (Richards, 2008), with a cut of frequency of 6 Hz used. Cut off frequencies previously used in other literature are between 6-18 Hz (Andersen et al, 1999 Dorge et al, 2002 Nunome et al, 2002 Teixeira, 1999). To determine heel strike of the non-k icking leg at placement the event minimum pipeline was used on the non-dominant leg (heel), to find the lowest point of the heel in the z axis (see figure 13). For information between a range of movements to be determined, the event ball contact was defined (see figure 14). portion velocity (in x axis) of the thigh, shank and foot was extracted from the data, in the reports section, using the range of events previously defined (non-dominant leg heel contact and ball impact) to visually see data between and up to those chosen points.Muscular strength testIsokinetic concentric peak torque of the dominant leg was measured using an isokinetic dynamometer (ISOCOM- isokinetic technology, eurokinetics) see figure 15. The strength test involved movement of the knee (extension and flexion) to detect muscular strength in the knee extensor muscle groups. The angular velocity used for the movement was 60 s-1 this angular velocity has been used by many investigators to evaluate knee muscular st rength of football players (Kellis et al, 2001 Ergun et al, 2004 Dauty et al, 2002). former to undergoing the test a warm-up was conducted, consisting of a 10 min warm up of cycling and 5mins of dynamic stretching, completion of this lead to the familiarisation process of the test protocols for the isokinetic movements that were tested including practice trials. Three maximum voluntary repetitions of flexion and extension at 60 s-1 took place in a seated position, with five familiarisation trials taking place beforehand, the participants were warned as to when the real trials were about to commence. The peak torque value was used to represent muscular strength this is considered to be the gold standard in isokinetic measurement (ISOCOM testing and rehabilitation user manual). This testing took place both pre and post intervention with the same protocol applied for both testing.Training programmeThe training programme undertaken in this study was a synthesis of findings derived from published articles for example training books and journals (Manolopoulous et al, 2006 Zatsiorsky Kraemer, 2006 Chu, 1998). The FTG and MTG followed a 6-week training programme consisting of 1 sitting per week (each session consisting of up to an hour and a half) including a warm up and main activities. The main activity consisted of a circuit style fashion plyometrics, kick co-ordination and strength work ensemble, with exercises such as lunges, squat jumps, resistance band work, core stability ball work and hurdle work included. Technical game play was incorporated into each session at the end of the circuit with the aim of improving k

The Impacts Of Minimum Wages Policy Economics Essay

The Impacts Of Minimum Wages Policy Economics EssayBased on the diagram above, the quantity sum of local undertaking before setting minimum prosecute (P1) is at Q1. After setting minimum wage (P2), the quantity supply of local labor sum ups to Q2. The quantity supply of total labor before setting minimum wage (P1) is at Q4. After setting minimum wage (P2), the quantity demand decreases to Q3. Owing to the priming that setting minimum wage, shortages of local labor at JKL arises at the minimum wage of P2 and surplus of unlike labor at EKM arises at the minimum wage of P2.The setting of minimum fee will increase the unemployment rate because employers will look to hire more specialized employees or less employees to maintain strong margins (Chotin, Finch, Eaton, Engham, Goldblatt, 2009). An example of unemployment from indexing would be Washington. Washingtons teen unemployment in 1999 was 19.7% and as indexing was applied its teen unemployment increased to 29.7% in year 2008 (Chotin, Finch, Eaton, Engham, Goldblatt, 2009). The following graph illustrates the offshoot in teen unemployment rates in Washington (Chotin, Finch, Eaton, Engham, Goldblatt, 2009). It used to compare with the unemployment rates of the rest of United States.This graph shows that when minimum wage rises companies hire fewer employees to melt down. For retailers, this means fewer employees on the floor selling, maintaining inventory and helping customers to find products. For example, stores which focus on customer service will not be up to(p) to make such sweeping employee cutbacks (Chotin, Finch, Eaton, Engham, Goldblatt, 2009). Market Basket, a grocery store food chain based out of Massachussetts is an example of a store focalisation on customer satisfaction, which faces issue on raising minimum wages. Market Basket hires many young teens to keep the floor full of employees to help the customers as much as possible. They also try to make sure the store clean, presentable and answer customers questions. Thus, when setting minimum wage, it will forces Market Basket and unexampled(prenominal) services focuses retailers cut backs in other areas (Chotin, Finch, Eaton, Engham, Goldblatt, 2009).Besides that, if the government setting minimum wages policy, it will affect the productivity and efficiency of employers or producers (Chua, 2008). When in that location is minimum wage policy, the producers will seek substitute(a) way to reduce the number of employees such as trade in new machine and new technological in order to save the cost of ware in long-term basis. For example, there are two equ completelyy productive defecateers assigned to introduce a wooded lot. The first worker is given a shovel and an axe, the second, bulldozer. Thus, the second worker is more productive compare with first worker because delicate work bunsnot compete with ameliorate technology (Matthew B. Kibbe, 1998).In addition, minimum wages policy causes inflation in the count ry. When the government set higher minimum wages policy, the producers are unable to cope with costs of production. It will cause the prices of all products to increase tremendously. Thus, the population, especially the low income class, would find it more difficult to stay in the high living expenditure society. Based on the economist, this known as cost-push inflation (Michael Pollick, 2010). An increase in the federal minimum wage will increase the costs of production, which subsequently results in an inflated price for consumers.Employers prefer to hire foreigners because they are charge lower wages and are more willing to work extra hours (Loh, 2009). In year 2008, foreign non-residents individuals account for 1.2 million people of the entire population and with the assumption that foreign labor from Singapore is not foreign talent. Thus, if the country sets the minimum wages policy, it will reduce dependency on foreign labor because Malaysians will be granted priority in tele phone line placement compared to foreign workers (Chua, 2008).As a result, the minimum wage policy would bring advantages and disadvantages to Malaysia and her population. To reduce the effect of the disadvantages of minimum wage, the Malaysian government needs to work out the most effective way on reducing the disadvantages of minimum wage policy so that government and population can gain as much as benefits as hoped. The government would have to look into the details pertaining to the shortcomings of the minimum wage policy such as the possibility of increase in foreign labour instead of local labours and consider other possible problems that could arise.Question 22.1 IntroductionGross Domestic Product (gross domestic product) is defined as the total market value of a countrys output. It is the market value of all final goods and services produced within a given period of time by factors of production located within a country (Case Fair, 2002). The production of a given value of goods and services would generate an equal value of income. Therefore, the necessary par between the gross domestic product and gross domestic income indicates that the gross domestic product can be measured both as the total value of output produced and as the income generated in producing that output (Tregarthen, 1996). Therefore, in the following essay, gross domestic product per capita is used as a measure of economic growth and living standards of a country over a period of time.2.2 Measuring Economic Output PerformanceA countrys economic output performance is currently measured using the GDP of the country. A method practiced by almost all countries presently. The GDP is a widely used and accepted method of economic measurement in many countries. It is updated much and monitored by specific national statistical bodies to ensure the best accuracy of the economic measurement (Madsen, 2006). GDP enables the country planners and economic planners to monitor the economic ration alise of the country in a regular, periodic basis.Despite the standardized GDP, there are many limitations to this concept. One of these limitations is GDP per capita fails to include non-marketed output and household production. GDP per capita does not include the value of the effort and time put into providing household goods and services (Tregarthen, 1996). For example, a family repainted their house by themselves without using the services of a experient painter. Their time and effort was not include in the calculation of the GDP. However, if the family uses the service of a skilled painter to repaint their house, the value would be added into the GDP. These would show in the GDP. However, it does not reflect the real(a) increase in production. It may reflect a shift in production from a category that is not included in the GDP (eg. household production) to another category that is included.GDP also fails to include environmental degradation (Waterson, 2010). An increasing inc ome and growth of a country could be occuring at the expense of the environment. Fast developing countries run a risk of causing negative externalities to the environment. The manufacturing area could be contributing a lot to the nations GDP, however, the sector could also be the major contributor to the air pollution in the area due to the smoke released. The polluted air can cause lively problems and diseases among the neighbouring societies.Furthermore, income derived from the black market and pop the question work is not accounted for in the GDP (Madsen, Dec 2006). In the case of the black market, there are no reports of production to the government to evade tax and the law. For example, the underground activities, like prostitution, human trafficking, and drug trafficking, are very lucrative. However, they are not reported because of the law. In the case of volunteer work and charitable organizations, they do not earn income in the first place. Therefore, it is not reported in the GDP despite the output generated.2.3 Measuring move Standard of LivingThe most common measure of standard of living is the use of real GDP per capita (Federal Reserve Bank of Boston, 2003). Real GDP per capita is the inflation-adjusted GDP per capita. Assuming other aspects remain equal, a sustained increase in real GDP would increase the countrys standard of living provided the output increases at a faster rate compared to the total population (Riley, 2006).The advantage of using real GDP per capita is that the country planners and economy planners are able to develop economic policies and developing plans since the trend in the GDP per capita at a specific period would reflect the living standards of the population (Madsen, 2006). Therefore, relating to the newspaper article in the question, the Prime take care of Malaysia, Datuk Seri Najib Tun Razak, had revealed the New Economic Model 2010 because the government believes that the living standards of Malaysians can be f urther improved.However, there are limitations to the usage of real GDP per capita as a measure of living standards. The failure to consider the distribution of income is one of its shortcomings. Because real GDP per capita (per capita income) is an indicator of the average living standard of individual members of the population, it cannot project the actual living standards of the population (Madsen, 2006). Income of the population varies according to the geographical region (Hillstrom, n.d.). Part of the population may be getting their income from the manufacturing industry whereas another part could be earning their income from the tourism sector.Per capita income also varies greatly through out the world. According to Susan Dentzer in U.S. News and World Report, in 1988 the top 20 percent of countries worldwide (based on annual national income) reported per capita income judges an average of 65 times greater than the bottom 20 percent of countries. As of the last quarter of 200 9, Malaysias per capita income (Gross National Income per capita) figure stands at RM25,201 (Department of Statistics Malaysia, 2010).The real GDP also does not take into account the leisure time . All other variables equal, more leisure time is better than less leisure time (Tregarthen, 1996). Consuming leisure would mean that less work effort would be supplied which means producing less GDP. For example, if the government imposes a level best 5 office and working hours per day, the labour effort in the country would reduce significantly causing the GDP to fall. However, this does not mean that the population is worse off compared to the previous period. According to Tregarthen, the population would end up consuming more goods and services because of the extra leisure time. This situation implies that the fall in GDP would be accompanied by the increase in utility.2.4 ConclusionAs a conclusion, our team agrees that economic output performance and rising standards of living can be measure using per capita income. In our opinion, it is a safer and more prudent measure to understate a countrys economy growth than overstate it. Despite all the shortcomings of the GDP, GDP does measure the production of goods and services which are main focuses of economic output performance (Tregarthen, 1996). Until a more comprehensive and better model is introduced, the GDP concept still holds. In the case of living standards, on the other hand, real GDP per capita can be supported by other alternative indicators which are the Genuine Progress Indicator (GPI), the Human Development Index (HDI) and the Index of Social Health.

Essay --

IntroductionGenetically modified (GM) foods atomic number 18 foods that are derived from genetically modified organisms (GMOs). Genetically modified organisms (GMOS) are defined as organisms in which the genetic material i.e. DNA has been altered in a way that doesnt occur naturally. Genetically modified foods or genetically modified organisms are most commonly referred to crop plants that are made for human and or animal consumption using molecular biology techniques. When these plants are modified they are done in the laboratory to enhance traits that are desirable , for example, improving the nutritionary content of foods and increased resistance to herbicides. When developing genetically modified plants, one or more genes are usually added to the plants genome in the lab, the plant can then be tested for other desirable traits akin the delayed ripening of tomatoes which in turn is helpful for the transportation and storage of tomatoes. GM foods are produced for many reasons, the main one being the advantages to the producer or to the customer. Initially the objective of developing plants using GM organisms was to improve the protection of crops. Currently the crops that are in the market are mainly aimed at increase the level of protection given to crops by introducing resistance against plant disease that can be cause by insects or viruses or herbicides. What is food protection?The World food summit engender defined food security as existing when all people at all times see access to sufficient, safe, nutritious food to maintain a healthy and active life. The concept of food security is defined as when both the economic and carnal access to foods that meet the peoples needs and for fill their dietary needs. In many developing cou... ...pesticides.As discussed earlier, the use of less pesticides can have a big positive impact on human health.There is a chance when using GM foods to be able to increase the nutritional value of a food as I discussed earlier with golden rice. This is a big step for developing countries as rice is their main basic diet, so in being able to enhance the rice with the appropriate nutrients that they will need in everyday life is a big advantage. In relation to food security, GM foods have the possibilities to enhance food sustainability. However, there are a number of issues that will still need to be discussed if GM labelling becomes mandatory such as who will be responsible for educating the public about GM food labels. The biggest issue will be educating the public with plant information without damaging the public trust and causing fear of GM food products.

Zelda Fitzgerald Essay -- Biographies Biography Writers Essays

Zelda Fitzgerald Zelda Fitzgerald began demeanor looking forward to what it could offer her. A democratic debutante and success at everything she had yet to try enticed her to believe that she was infallible. It was only during her later life that she realized that life, both physically and mentally, had its breaking point. Though many an(prenominal) things have been blamed as the cause of her mental dislocation, there is no specific root to her problem. Diagnosed as schizophrenic in 1930, Zelda would be condemned to spending the slumber of her life in and out of mental health facilities, the place where she would take her final breath, killed by a fire in 1948. Zelda Fitzgeralds first breakdown occurred while living abroad in 1929. Insistent on becoming a world-class ballerina Zelda threw her heart and soul into her dancing. Later in life Zelda would admit that she needed dancing, she wanted, dancing to be her exclusive possession (Milford, 152)1. After having a life in which she was constantly referred to as F. Scott Fitzgeralds wife, Zelda imagined dancing to be her own passion, one which could give her a personality separate from simply creation a wife. The pinnacle of her first breakdown occurred in April of 1930. Increasingly Zeldas behavior had been becoming so strange that Scott finally took her too a hospital. Against her doctors wishes she soon left and returned to her apartment where she became increasingly more disoriented, kvetch of hearing voices and seeing phantoms. Finally, against her wishes Scott instituted her at Les Rives de Pragins. The one thing Zelda missed was her ballet, of it she wrote, It was all I had in the world at the time (Milford, 160). During her first instance of being institut... ... 4)3 to a sad lonely existence. Whether it was genetics or Scott Fitzgerald to blame for this transformation can never be decided. What Zeldas illness took away from her and from society was the inventive thinker that could never fully be unlocked. Zelda left behind a treasure of short stories, plays, and paintings. Perhaps without her debilitating schizophrenia Zelda Fitzgerald would have been able to create the independent identity for which she so craved. 1 Milford, Nancy. Zelda, Harper Collins, New York, New York, 1970. both further references refer to this edition.2 Bryer, Jackson. Dear Scott, Dear Zelda, St. Martins Press, New York, New York, 2002. All further references refer to this edition. 3 Willett, Erika Zelda Sayre Fitzgerald Artist, Writer, Dancer and Wife. PBS Biographies. www.pbs.org/kteh/amstorytellers/bios.html